TermsofAmericanLiteratureAllegory寓言isanarrativethatservesasanextendedmetaphor.Allegoriesarewrittenintheformoffables,parables,poems,stories,andalmostanyotherstyleorgenre.Themainpurposeofanallegoryistotellastorythathascharacters,asetting,aswellasothertypesofsymbols,thathavebothliteralandfigurativemeanings.Onewell-knownexampleofanallegoryisDante’sTheDivineComedy.InInferno,Danteisonapilgrimagetotrytounderstandhisownlife,buthischaracteralsorepresentseverymanwhoisinsearchofhispurposeintheworld.Alliteration头韵法isapatternofsoundthatincludestherepetitionofconsonantsounds. Therepetitioncanbelocatedatthebeginningofsuccessivewordsorinsidethewords.Poetsoftenusealliterationtoaudiblyrepresenttheactionthatistakingplace. Aside旁白isanactor’sspeech,directedtotheaudience,thatisnotsupposedtobeheardbyotheractorsonstage.Anasideisusuallyusedtolettheaudienceknowwhatacharacterisabouttodoorwhatheorsheisthinking.Asidesareimportantbecausetheyincreaseanaudience'sinvolvementinaplaybygivingthemvitalinformationpertainingwhatishappening,bothinsideofacharacter'smindandintheplotoftheplay.Gothicisaliterarystylepopularduringtheendofthe18thcenturyandthebeginningofthe19th.Thisstyleusuallyportrayedfantastictalesdealingwithhorror,despair,thegrotesqueandother“dark”subjects.Gothicliteraturewasnamedfortheapparentinfluenceofthedarkgothicarchitectureoftheperiodonthegenre.Also,manyoftheseGothictalestookplacesinsuch“gothic”surroundings.Othertimes,thisstoryofdarknessmayoccurinamoreeverydaysetting,suchasthequainthousewherethemangoesmadfromthe"beating"ofhisguiltinEdgarAllanPoe's“TheTell-TaleHeart.”Inessence,thesestorieswereromances,largelyduetotheirloveoftheimaginaryoverthelogical,andweretoldfrommanydifferentpointsofview.CATHARSIS宣泄isanemotionaldischargethatbringsaboutamoralorspiritualrenewalorwelcomerelieffromtensionandanxiety.AccordingtoAristotle,catharsisisthemarkingfeatureandultimateendofanytragicartisticwork.IMAGERY意象:Acommontermofvariablemeaning,imageryincludesthe"mentalpictures"thatreadersexperiencewithapassageofliterature.Itsignifiesallthesensoryperceptionsreferredtoinapoem,whetherbyliteraldescription,allusion,simile,ormetaphor.Surrealism超现实主义isanartisticmovementdoingawaywiththerestrictionsofrealismandverisimilitude真实性、逼真thatmightbeimposedonanartist.Inthismovement,theartistsoughttodoawaywithconsciouscontrolandinsteadrespondtotheirrationalurgesofthesubconsciousmind.Fromthisresultsthehallucinatory,bizarre,oftennightmarishqualityofsurrealisticpaintingsandwritings.SamplesurrealistwritersincludeFrankO'Hara,JohnAshberry,andFranzKafka.Modernismisvaguetermreferringtotheart,poetry,literature,architecture,andphilosophyofEuropeandAmericaintheearlytwentieth-century.Ingeneral,modernismismarkedbythefollowingcharacteristics:(1)thedesiretobreakawayfromestablishedtraditions,(2)aquesttofindfreshwaystoviewman'spositionorfunctionintheuniverse,(3)experimentsinformandstyle,particularlywithfragmentation--asopposedtothe"organic"theoriesofliteraryunityappearingintheRomanticandVictorianperiods.StreamofConsciousnessisthecontinuousflowofsense-perceptions,thoughts,feelings,andmemoriesinthehumanmind.Inliteraryworks,itreferstotheliterarymethodofrepresentingsuchablendingofmentalprocessesinfictionalcharacters,usuallyinanunpunctuatedordisjointedformofinteriormonologue.ItisanimportantdeviceofmodernistfictionpioneeredbyJamesJoyceandfurtherdevelopedbywriterslikeWilliamFaulkner.Tragedy,accordingtoAristotle,is“theimitationofanactionthatisseriousandalso,ashavingmagnitude,completeinitself,”inthemediumofpoeticlanguageandinthemannerofdramaticratherthanofnarrativepresentation,involving“incidentsarousingpityandfear,wherewithtoaccomplishthecatharsisofsuchemotions.”ArthurMiller’sTheDeathofaSalesmanisamoderntragedywhoseeffectontheaudienceisoneofcompassionateunderstandingratherthanoftragicpityandterror.Expressionism
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现主义inliterature,especiallydrama,flourishedintheearly1900's.Expressionistplaywrightstrytoportraylifeasmodifiedanddistortedbytheirpersonalinterpretationofreality..Charactersinexpressionistdramatendtobeone-sided,standingforsingleideasandattitudes.Theyareplacedinsituationsinwhichtheobjectsoftheouterworldaredistortedtorevealthetorturedmindsofthecharactersorthedramatist.Playwrightsachievetheseeffectswithsymbolicsettings,bizarrelighting,andnonrealisticacting.EugeneO'NeillisamajorAmericanexpressionistplaywright.TheLostGeneration:ThistermisappliedtotheAmericanwriters,mostofwhomwerebasicallyexpatriates.TheyleftAmericaandformedacommunityofwritersandartistsinParis,involvedwithotherEuropeannovelistsandpoetsintheirexperimentationonnewmodesofthoughtandexpression.Theterm"LostGeneration"camefromGertrudeStein'sremarktoamechanicinHemingway'spresencethat"Youareallalostgeneration."HemingwayuseditasamottoinhisnovelTheSunAlsoRises.Amongthosegreatestfiguresin"TheLostGeneration"andEzraPound,F.ScottFitzgerald,ErnestHemingwayandHartCranewholostthetraditionalvaluesasaresultofthewarandfoughthardtoseeknewvaluesandbeliefstofillthevoidofthepost-warworldwhichwasfullofphysicalwoundsaswellasmentalchaos.Imagism意象派:ImagistisappliedtoagroupofpoetsprominentinAmericabetween1909and1918.Imagismwasaspiritofrevoltagainstconventionalitiesratherthanagoalsetupasinitselfapermanentlylastingobjective.Allpoeticlanguageisthelanguageofexploration.ThepointofImagismisthatitdoesnotuseimagesasornaments.Theimageisitselfthespeech.Theimageisthewordbeyondformulatedlanguage.ThemostconspicuousfiguresoftheimagistmovementwereEzraPound,AmyLowell,CarlSandburgandWilliamCarlosWilliams.BlackHumor:Blackhumorisatermusedinliterature,drama,andfilm.Itreferstogrotesqueormorbidhumorusedtoexpresstheabsurdity,insensitivity,paradox,andcrueltyofthemodernworld.Ordinarycharactersorsituationsareusuallyexaggeratedfarbeyondthelimitsofnormalsatireorirony.Blackhumorusesdevicesoftenassociatedwithtragedyandissometimesequatedwithtragicfarce.Forexample,Catch-22isthemodelrepresentativeofthistype.ThenovelsofsuchwritersasKurtVonnegut,ThomasPynchon,JohnBarth,JosephHeller,andPhilipRothcontainelementsofblackhumor.Puritanism清教主义:AmericanPuritanismwaspracticeandbeliefofPuritans.PuritanswerethepeoplewhowantedtopurifytheChurchofEnglandandthenwerepersecutedinEngland.TheycametoAmericaforvariousreasons.Butbecausetheywereagroupofseriousandreligiouspeople,theycarriedacodeofvalueandaphilosophyoflife.Tothem,religionwasthemostimportantthing.Theyacceptedthedoctrineofpredestination,originalsin,totaldepravityandlimitedatonementforGod’sgrace.Theyalsobelievedinhardworking,pietyandsobriety.Inaword,AmericanPuritanismexertedgreatinfluencesuponAmericanthoughtandliterature.HarlemRenaissance哈莱姆文艺复兴:Blossoming(c.1918–37)ofAfricanAmericanculture,particularlyinthecreativearts,centeredinHarleminNewYorkCity.Asaliterarymovement,itlaidthegroundworkforalllaterAfricanAmericanliteratureandhadasignificantimpactonblackliteratureandconsciousnessworldwide.ItsleadingliteraryfiguresincludedLangstonHughes,ZoraNealeHurston,JeanToomerandWallaceThurman(1902–34).TheirworkbothfedandtookinspirationfromthecreativeandcommercialgrowthofjazzandaconcurrentburgeoningofworkbyblackvisualartistssuchasAaronDouglas.CentraltothemovementwereeffortstoexploreallaspectsoftheAfricanAmericanexperienceandtoreconceptualize"theNegro"independentofwhitestereotypes.Transcendentalism超验主义:Transcendentalismhasbeendefinedphilosophicallyas"therecognitioninmanofthecapacityofknowingtruthintuitively,orofattainingknowledgetranscendingthereachofthesenses."ItwasstartedbyagroupofmembersoftheTranscendentalClubinNewEnglandinthe1830s,whoseleaderswereEmerson,whowasgreatlyinfluencedbyCarlyle,Coleridgeandothers,andhisyoungfriendThoreau.PrincipalideasofTranscendentalismarebasedondoctrinesofancientandmodernEuropeanphilosophers,particularlyKant.Asthemovementdeveloped,itsponsoredtwoimportantactivities:thepublicationofTheDialduring1840-1844andBrookfarm.Theirmainnotionsinclude:a)livingclosetonature;b)thedignityofmanuallabor;c)thedivinityinmaninhisownright;d)onegreatbrotherhoodamongallthepeople;e)self-trustandself–reliance.AmericanPuritanism:Simplyspeaking,AmericanPuritanismjustreferstothespiritandidealofpuritanswhosettledintheNorthAmericancontinentintheearlypartoftheseventeenthcenturybecauseofreligiouspersecutions.Incontentitmeansscrupulousmoralrigor,especiallyhostilitytosocialpleasuresandindulgences,thatisstrictness,sternnessandausterityinconductandreligionWithtimepassingitbecameadominantfactorinAmericanlife,oneofthemostenduringshapinginfluencesinAmericanthoughtandAmericanLiterature.Tosomeextentitisastateofmind,apartofthenationalculturalatmospherethattheAmericanbreathes,ratherthanasetoftenets.Actuallyitisacodeofvalues,aphilosophyoflifeandapointofviewinAmericanminds,alsoatwo-facetedtraditionofreligiousidealismandlevel-headedcommonsense.;AericanRomanticism;isoneofthemostimportantperioddsinthehistoryofAmericanliterature.Iwasarebellionagainstrtheobjectivityofrationalism.Forromantics,thefeelings,intuitionsandemotionsweremoreimportantthanreasonandcommensense.Theyemphazedindividualism,placingtheindividualagainstthegroup.Theafirmedtheinnerlifeofthesels,andcherishedstronginterestinthepast,thewild,theremote,thwmysteriousandthestange.Theystressedtheelement“Americaness”intheirworks.ItstartedwiththepulicationofWashingtonIrving’ThestretchBookandenedwithWaltWhiteman’sLeavesofGrass.Itisalsocalled“AmericanRenaissance”AmericanRomantistsincludesuchliteraryfiguresasWashintonIrving,Emerson,Thoreau,Hawthrone,MellvilleWhitemanandsomeothers.;LocalColorism:Isconcernedwiththelifeofasmall,well-definedregionorprovince.ThecharacteristicsettingistheisolatedsmalltownThestyleofwritingderivedfromthepresentationofthefeaturesandpeculiaritiesofaparticularlocalityanditsinhabitants.SimplyitmeansTheuseofregionaldetailinaliteraryorartisticwork.ThenameisgivenespeciallytoakindofAmericanliteraturethatinitsmostcharacteristicformmadeitsappearancejustaftertheCivilWarandfornearlythreedecadeswasthesinglemostpopularformofAmericanliterature.Followinginthefootstepsofthepre-war"sectionalhumorists,"localcoloristswereinterestedinrealisticallydepictinglifeindifferentsectionsoftheUnitedStatesinordertopromoteunderstandingandunification.FictionwriterslikeSarahOrneJewett,BretHarte,O.Henry,andMarkTwainhavebeenidentifiedwithinthistradition.;Naturalism;acceptedthemorenegativeinterpretationofDarwin’sevolutionarytheoryandusedittoaccountforthebehaviorofthosecharatersintheliteraryworkswhwereregardedasmoreorlesscomplexcombinationofinherittedattibutes,theirhabitsconditionbysocialandeconomicforces.AmericanNaturalismisevoledfromrealismhentheauthor’stoneinwritingbecomeslessseriousandlesssympatheticbutmoreironicandmorepessimistic.Itisnomorethanagloomyphilosophicalapproachtoreality,ortohumanexistence.DreiserisaleadingfigureofthisschoolTheLostGeneration:isatermusedbyGertudeSterntodescribethepost–WWIgenerartonofAmericanwriters::manandwomenhauntedbyasenseofbetrayalandemptinessbroughtaboutbythedestructivnessofthewar.Fulofyouthfulidealism,theseindividualssoughtthemeaningofthelife,drankexcessivly,hadloveaffairsandcreatedsomeofthefinestAmericanliterturetodate.Thethreebest-knownrepresentativesofLostGenerationareF.SccotFitzgerald,ErnesthemingwayandJohnDosPassos.AmricanDreamreferstothereamofmaterralsuccess,inwhichone,regardlessofsocialstatus,acquireswealthandgainssuccesbyworkinghardandgoodluck.Inliterature,thethemeofAmericandreamrecurs.InTheGreatGatsby,Gatsbycamefromthewesttotheeastwiththedreamofmaterialsuccess.Bybootleggingandotherillegalmeanshefilfilledhisdreambutendedupbeingkilled.ThenoveltellestheshatteringofAmeracanDreamratherthanitssuccess.Impreessionism:isastyleofpaintingthatgivestheimpressionmadebythesublectontheartistwithoutmuchattentintodetails.Writersaccfeptedthesameconvictionthatpersonalattitudeandmoodsofthewriterwerelegitimateelementindipictingcharatersorsettingoraction.Briefly,itiaastyleofliteraturecharacterixedbythecreartionofgeneralimpresionandmoodsratherthanrealiticmoods.4