北二外语篇分析课件Discourse Analysis

nullDiscourse AnalysisDiscourse AnalysisLectures for the 4th year studentsDiscourse AnalysisDiscourse Analysis1: Introduction 2: Basic issues in DA 3: Texture (Halliday’s Theory) 4: Texture (Beaugrande & Dressler’s Theory) 5: Cohesion and coherence 6: Thematic and information structure 7: Tense and Aspect 8: Discourse structure 9: Conversation analysis 10: Discourse and context 11: DA in application 1: Introduction-- A general understanding 1: Introduction-- A general understanding When? Came into being since 1950s; as an independent discipline since 1970s. What to study? Language units larger than sentences, including both written and spoken language. 1: Introduction — development of DA1: Introduction — development of DA1.Text Linguistics Text linguistics (or discourse linguistics) developed on the basis of syntax (句法学). So it is also called text grammar (篇章语法) or discourse analysis （语篇 分析 定性数据统计分析pdf销售业绩分析模板建筑结构震害分析销售进度分析表京东商城竞争战略分析 ，话语分析）. 1: Introduction — development of DA1: Introduction — development of DA2. Stages (1) The Preparatory Stage (1950s): Harris (2) The Developmental Stage (or The Emergence of Discourse Analysis As A New Discipline) (1970s) : Halliday (3) The Matured Stage (1980s):G. Yule, T. Givon, S. Thompson, J. S. Petofi, W. Chafe, W. Mann, R. Longacre, etc. in America; G. Brown, Van Dijk, M. Coulthard, J. Sinclair, E. Ventola, etc. in western Europe; M. A. K. Halliday, R. Hasan, J. Martin, C, Matthiessen, etc. in Austalia; M. Bakhtin in Russia; 廖秋忠, 陈平, 胡壮麟, 沈家煊, 顾曰国, 任绍曾, 申丹，黄国文, 张德禄, 朱永生等。1: Introduction —definition?1: Introduction —definition?1. The Common-Sense Definitions 2. The Theoretical Definitions : formalist : discourse us a particular unit of language (above the sentence) functionalist : discourse is defined as a particular focus on language use. 1: Introduction —definition?1: Introduction —definition?Formalist：Language above the sentence Functionalist: Language use Discourse: utterances 1: Introduction —characteristics1: Introduction —characteristicsdiscourse must be grammatically correct and semantically coherent. discourse should have an argumentative structure and logical structure it is generally held that the boundary of discourse analysis should exceed the limit of a simple sentence Halliday and Hasan (1976) propose that discourse is a semantic unit, not a unit of form. Introduction: Text & DiscourseIntroduction: Text & DiscourseDifferent definitions to text/ discourse: 1. Halliday&Hasan (1976), Quirk et al. (1985): text for both written and spoken language 2. Coulthard (1985): text for written, discourse for spoken 3. Leech et al.(1985): discourse for both 4. Widdowson (1975): discourse for written1: Introduction —The Task of DA1: Introduction —The Task of DAFrom the macro-perspective : How does language use influence beliefs and interaction, or vice versa? How do aspects of interaction influence how people speak? How do beliefs control language use and interaction？ What are the relationships among language use, beliefs and interaction?1: Introduction —The Task of DA1: Introduction —The Task of DAFrom the micro-perspective : (a) the semantic links between sentences, (b) textual cohesion and coherence, (c) conversational principles, (d) the relationship between discourse and context, (e) the relationship between the discourse semantic structure and ideology, (f) the relationship between discourse and thinking patterns, etc.1: Introduction — Varieties of Approaches Towards DA1: Introduction — Varieties of Approaches Towards DAIn sociology In philosophy In cognitive psychology In literature In linguistics In critical linguistic study In cognitive linguistics 2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DA1. Cohesion 2. Coherence 3. Sentence, sentence group and text 4. Patterns of sentential relationships 5. Discourse structure 6. DA levels2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DACohesion: A important feature of texture realized at the surface structure of a text. To be realized by using grammatical devices (e.g. reference, substitution and ellipses, etc.) and lexical devices (e.g. reiteration and collocation, etc.) A tangible network of the text2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DACoherence: The semantic relation in a text; lying in not on the surface but the deep level of the text; realized by logical reasoning; an intangible network of the text2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DACohesion: A: Whose is this pen? B: Oh, it’s the one I lost. Coherence: A: That’s the telephone. B: I’m in the bath. A: O.K. 2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DASentence, sentence group and text Sentence: the largest grammatical unit SG: composed by 2 or more sentences Clause: ?? Clause complex2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DASentential relationships: The structural and semantic relations between sentences in a coherent text. Clause complexes: A sentence can be interpreted as a clause complex: a Head clause together with other clauses that modify it. The clause complex will be the only grammatical unit which we shall recognize above the clause. (Halliday, 1994)2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DABasic types of clause complexesnull2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DATwo systemic dimensions: 1. The system of interdependency: parataxis and hypotaxis 2. The logico-semantic system: expansion and projection2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DADiscourse structure “This noise is giving me a headache.” “Me, too!” * “It’s going to rain soon.” “Me, too!”2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DADiscourse structure—linearization （线性表现） I came. I saw. I conquered. (Julius Caesar) The policeman held up his hand. The car stopped.2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DADiscourse structure—basic relational structures （基本关系结构）（Quirk,1985) 1. general and particular: Working in wood calls for great manual skill. The ordinary saw itself is not easy to handle. The ordinary household saw is not easy to use. In fact, any sort of woodwork calls for great manual skill. Many of the audience became openly hostile. For example my uncle wrote a letter to the management next day.2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DA2. progression （递进）（以时间先后、推理起结为序） Wang Ching gets up at half past six. He dresses, washes and goes out to do morning exercises. Then he has breakfast. He must be Bob’s brother. I remember he’s got a big red nose. First, boil the rice in well-salted water; drain it immediately. Next, … 2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DALevels of DA 1. phonological level Suprasegmental features: stress, duration, quantity, quality, pitch, juncture, transition, pause, intonation, rhythm Ads/ poems: alliteration, assonance, consonance, reverse rhyme, pararhyme, rhyme Phonological deviation2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DA2. graphological level Layout, shape, presentation, arrangement of sentences, etc. 3. lexical/ semantic level Word-formation, word complexity, word stylistic features, word semantic features, etc. 2: Basic issues in DA2: Basic issues in DA4. syntactic level Sentence type, sentence complexity, sentence arrangement and the distribution and given and new information, etc. 5. textual level Text structure etc. 6. level of textual orientation The relationships among the time, place and participants of a narrative even, factuality, etc.3: Texture 3: Texture Texture is also called textuality. To be a text, it must have texture. What does texture mean? How can we determine whether a text has texture or not? 3: Texture 3: Texture The Study of Texture Halliday’s Theory Halliday (1976:2) said: “A text has texture(语篇特征) and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text…The texture is provided by the cohesive relation.” For example: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish. According to Halliday, the cohesive relations include: reference, substitution, ellipsis and lexical relationship. 3: Texture 3: Texture 1.Reference Reference is divided into endophoric reference and exophoric reference. Exphoric reference is also called situational reference. Endophoric reference is also called textual reference. According to Halliday, only endophoric reference is cohesive. Exphoric reference contributes to the creation of text, but it does not contribute to the cohesion of the text, because exphoric reference links the language with the context of situation. Endophoric reference includes three types: personal, demonstrative, and comparative.3: Texture 3: Texture Personal Reference reference made by personal pronouns; including: I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, we, us, our, ours, they, them, their, theirs, etc. Limerick There was a young lady of Niger, Who smiled as she rode on a tiger. They returned from the ride With the lady inside And the smile on the face of the tiger. Here she and they are anaphoric, ‘pointing’ respectively to a young lady, and a young lady and a tiger. An anaphoric relationship of this kind creates cohesion. Presented with these words, the listener has to look back for its interpretation. So these words have the effect of linking the two sentences into a cohesive unity.3: Texture3: TextureDemonstrative Reference reference made by the following words such as the, this, that, these, those, here, there, etc., which expresses the degree of proximity. E.g. In other words, economical writing is efficient and aesthetically satisfying. While it makes a maximum demand on the energy and patience of readers, it returns to them a maximum of sharply compressed meaning. You should accept this as your basic responsibility as a writer: that you inflict no unnecessary words on your readers – just as a dentist inflicts no unnecessary pain, a lawyer no unnecessary risk. Here this is cataphoric, ‘pointing’ to the latter part of the sentence.3: Texture3: TextureComparative Reference reference made by the following words such as same, different, identical, similar, equal, equally, more, less, better, etc., which expresses IDENTITY or SIMILARITY. A Reasonable Affliction Mattew Prior On his death-bed poor Lubin lies; His spouse is in despair; With frequent sobs and mutual cries; They both express their care. “A different cause,” says Parson Sly, “ The same effect may give: Poor Lubin fears that he may die; His wife, that he may live”. Here different is cataphoric, ‘pointing’ forward, and same is anaphoric, ‘pointing’ to what has been said in the first part of this poem. 3: Texture3: Texture2.Ellipsis Ellipsis means something left unsaid. There are three types of ellipsis: nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis.3: Texture3: TextureNominal Ellipsis Ellipsis within the nominal group. The nominal group is composed of a Head with the other elements: Deictic, Numerative, Epithet, Classifier, and Qualifier. The Deictic is normally a determiner such as those, these, etc., the Numerative a numeral or other quantifier such as two, four, etc., the Epithet an adjective such as fast, etc., the Classifier a noun or an adjective such as train in train set, electric, etc. The function of the Head, which is always filled, is normally served by the common noun, proper noun or pronoun expressing the thing. Under certain circumstances, the common noun may be omitted and the function of the Head is taken on by one of these other elements. E.g. a. Here are my two white silk scarves. b. Where are yours? As for b yours (Deictic) is Head, and the presupposed elements include not only scarves (Thing) but also silk (Classifier), white (Epithet) and possibly two (Numerative).3: Texture3: TextureVerbal Ellipsis Ellipsis within the verbal group. For example: a. Have you been playing football? – Yes, I have. b. What have you been doing? – Playing football. The two verbal groups in the answers, have in (a) and playing in (b) are both instances of verbal ellipsis. 3: Texture3: TextureClausal Ellipsis Clausal ellipsis is related to the question-answer process in dialogue, which determines that there are two kinds of ellipsis: yes / no ellipsis, and WH-ellipsis.3: Texture3: TextureYes / No Ellipsis First, in a yes / no question-answer sequence, the answer may involve the ellipsis of the whole clause. For example: Spurgeon More funny stories are told of Spurgeon than perhaps any great preacher. Here is a good one. He was called to the telephone by a friend who said: “Have you read this morning’s paper?” “Yes. (I have)” “Did you see in it a notice that I was dead?” “Yes. (I did)” “What do you think of it?” “Don’t know,” replied Spurgeon. “What I want to know is where you are speaking from?” Second, in a yes / no question-answer sequence, there may be ellipsis of just one part of it, the Residue. For example: - Must we hand in our paper at the end of this term? - Of course you must (hand in your paper at the end of this term) .3: Texture3: TextureWH-ellipsis First, in a WH-sequence, the entire clause is usually omitted except for the WH-element itself, or the item that is the response to the WH-element: - “What did you think of the bird, Mother?” he asked eagerly. - “Delicious!”, his mother said. Second, sometimes in a WH-clause, or its response, the Mood element is left in and only the Residue is omitted. For example: With WH-Subject -Who’re at work now. - I am (at work now).3: Texture3: Texture3 Substitution Substitution means the replacement of one item by another. There are three types of substitution: nominal, verbal and clausal.3: Texture3: TextureNominal Substitution The items that occur as substitutes are one, ones, the same. For example: -A very nice old lady had a few words to say to her granddaughter. “ My dear,” said the old lady, ‘I wish you would do something for me. I wish you would promise me never to use two words. One is ‘lousy’ and the other is ‘swell’. Would you promise me that?” - The climate in Northern China is not the same as that in Southern China.3: Texture3: Texture Verbal Substitution The verbal substitute in English is do, with the usual morphological variant forms do, does, did, doing, done. For example: She can sing as well as he does. (does = sings) - Do you play violin every day? - Yes, I do. (do = play violin) The substitute do is often used with so to substitute the Predicator, the Object or the Predicator and Adjunct. He can sing many Italian songs, but I can’t do so. (do so = sing many Italian songs)3: Texture3: Texture Clausal Substitution What is presupposed is not an element with the clause but an entire clause. The words used as substitutes are so and not. Substitution of the (Reported) Clause - Will they arrive on time? - I hope so. (=I hope they will arrive on time) Substitution of Conditional Clause Conditional clauses are frequently substituted by so and not, especially following if but also in other forms such as assuming so, suppose not. For example: Everyone seems to support him. If so (= if everyone supports him), he will become the principal of our school. Substitution of Modalized Clauses So and not can combine with some modal adverbs (e.g. perhaps, certainly, probably) and occur as substitutes for clauses expressing modality. For example: (25) – Have they married? - Perhaps not. (= Perhaps they haven’t married.)3: Texture3: Texture4 Conjunction Conjunction means that a clause or clause complex, or some longer stretch of text, may be related to what follows it by one or other of a specific set of semantic relations (or the devices of various logical relation). There are four types of conjunction: additive, adversative, causal, and temporal. 3: Texture3: Texture I took a bath, dined, and then dozed fitfully for a while.(additive) Law-and –order is the longest-running and probably the best-loved political issue in U. S. history. Yet it is painfully apparent that millions of Americans who would never think of themselves as law-breakers, let alone criminals. (adversative) Red-light running has always been ranked as a minor wrong, and so it may be in individual instances. (Causal) Soon afterwards the cloud sank down to earth and covered the sea; it had already blotted out Capri and hidden the promontory of Misenum from sight. Then my mother implored, entreated, and commanded me to escape as best as I could – a young man might escape, whereas she was old and slow and could die in peace as long as she had not been the cause of my death too. (temporal) The words and, yet, so and then can be taken as typifying these four general conjunctive relations. Actually a lot of words can be found within these four general categories of conjunction. 3: Texture3: Texture5. Lexical Cohesion Lexical cohesion refers to the selection of items that are related in some way to those that have gone before. It includes the following devices such as repetition, synonymy & antonymy, collocation, etc.3: Texture3: TextureRepetition Repetition is the most direct form of lexical cohesion. It means the choice of the lexical item that is in some sense similar to the preceding one. For example: The young man does not like bears, so yesterday in the park he gave the bear some poisonous food to eat. In addition, the repeated lexical item need not be in the same morphological shape. For example, dine, dining, diner, dinner are all the same item, and an occurrence of any one constitutes a repetition. Look at another example: A Barking Wife A man who had been married for ten years was consulting a marriage counselor. “When I was first married, I was very happy. I’d come home from a hard day down at the shop, and my little dog would race around barking, and my wife would bring me my slippers. Now everything’s changed. When I come home, my dog brings me my slippers, and my wife barks at me.” “I don’t know what you’re complaining about,” said the counselor. “You’re still getting the same service.” In this passage, there are three chains of lexical cohesion: married and marriage, barking and barks, bring and brings, which suggest that marry-married-marriage, bark-barks-barking, bring-brings are respectively one and the same lexical item.3: Texture3: TextureSynonymy and Antonymy Synonymy Lexical cohesion can result from the choice of a lexical item that is in some sense synonymous with a preceding one; for example joke and story, smiled and laughed in the following passage. The Joke Sir William Thompson was very deaf but he did not like people to know this. One evening he had invited several friends to dinner, and while they were sitting at the table, one of the friends told a funny story. Everyone laughed, and Sir William, who had laughed as loud as everyone, said, “That was a very funny joke, but I know a funnier one. Would you like to hear it?” They all said they would, so Sir William began his story. When it ended, everyone laughed louder than ever and Sir William smiled happily. But he didn’t know the reason for their laughter. He had told the very same story that his friend had just told.3: Texture3: TextureWhat is closely related with synonymy is hyponym (下义词), whose meaning is included into the category of superordinate (上坐标词). One superordinate (e.g.flower) often subsumes several ‘co-hyponyms’: Flower rose daffodil daisy dandelion snowdrop … The superordinate expresses general and abstract meaning while the hyponym the specific and concrete meaning.3: Texture3: TextureAnother semantic relationship is meronym (局部词), which seems to be congruent with hyponym, but in fact the relationship between meronym and superordinate is a kind of part-whole rather than specific-general. For example: Tree root trunk branch leaf … As can be seen, root, trunk, branch, leaf, etc. are a group of co-meronyms.3: Texture3: TextureCohesion can also arise out of the hyponymy and the meronym. For instance: Ravenous fish and tasty plankton. Rain forests dripping with nameless reptiles, birds gliding under canopies of leaves, insects buzzing like electrons in an accelerator. Frost belts where voles and le