Tourism Management 29 (2
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1. Introduction
sional field in which tourists constitute a potential market
theory and professional practice. Emphasis is placed on
research and publication trends, and on a critical evalua-
are examined. Fig. 2 is presented to illustrate the inter-
general types of event (i.e., business, sport, festivals) that
ARTICLE IN PRESS
have attracted the most attention from researchers and
practitioners. Also covered in more detail are the ‘mega’
events that have generated their own research lines.
0261-5177/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.07.017
�Tel.: +1 403 220 7158; fax: +1 403 282 0095.
E-mail address: don.getz@haskayne.ucalgary.ca
for planned events and the tourism industry has become a
vital stakeholder in their success and attractiveness. But
not all events need to be tourism oriented, and some fear
the potential negative impacts associated with adopting
marketing orientation. As well, events have other impor-
tant roles to play, from community-building to urban
renewal, cultural development to fostering national iden-
tities—tourism is not the only partner or proponent.
In this paper the nature, evolution and future develop-
ment of ‘event tourism’ are discussed, pertaining to both
relationships between events and tourism. A number of
event tourism career paths are identified (Fig. 3), then within
a discussion of the destination perspective an event portfolio
model is examined (Fig. 4). This strategic approach can help
shape evaluation, planning, and policy for events.
Event Tourism in the Research Literature constitutes the
third section, with the review first presented chronologi-
cally, showing the origins and evolution of event tourism
within the context of both tourism and event management.
A thematic approach is then taken to review the three
Events are an important motivator of tourism, and
figure prominently in the development and marketing plans
of most destinations. The roles and impacts of planned
events within tourism have been well documented, and are
of increasing importance for destination competitiveness.
Yet it was only a few decades ago that ‘event tourism’
became established in both the tourism industry and in the
research community, so that subsequent growth of this
sector can only be described as spectacular.
Equally, ‘event management’ is a fast growing profes-
directions. The perspective taken is primarily that of
destinations and the tourism industry, although other
viewpoints are discussed.
Five main sections are subsequently presented. The first is
entitled The Event Perspective; it starts with a typology of
what constitutes the ‘planned events’ sector (Fig. 1). ‘Event
management’ as a profession is defined, and ‘event studies’ is
discussed as an emerging academic field. In the second
section, The Tourism Perspective, ‘event tourism’ is defined
from both a demand and supply perspective, then its goals
tion of knowledge creation, theory building, and future
Progress in Tou
Event tourism: Definitio
Donal
Haskayne School of Business, University of Calgary, 2500
Received 24 April 200
Abstract
This article reviews ‘event tourism’ as both professional practice
on event tourism are pinpointed through both chronological
phenomenon and key themes in event tourism studies is provide
research gaps, and assisting professional practice. Conclusions ar
management and tourism, and implications are drawn for advanc
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Event tourism; Definitions; Theory; Research
008) 403–428
m Management
evolution, and research
Getz�
iversity Ave. N.W., Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4
ccepted 31 July 2007
d a field of academic study. The origins and evolution of research
thematic literature reviews. A conceptual model of the core
s a framework for spurring theoretical advancement, identifying
two parts: a discussion of implications for the practice of event
theory in event tourism.
www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman
Section four, entitled A Framework for Knowledge
Creation and Theory Development in Event Tourism, is
shaped by a model (Fig. 5) of the event tourism system.
The core phenomenon (event experiences and meanings) is
discussed first, then antecedents and choices (including
motivation research), planning and managing event tour-
ism, patterns and processes (including spatial, temporal,
policy making and knowledge creation), outcomes and the
impacted. Figs. 6–10 provide a set of key research
questions and possible research methods for each of these
elements of the event tourism system, together constituting
a research agenda.
Conclusions are in two parts, the first being a discussion
of implications for the practice of event management and
tourism. Finally, implications are drawn for advancing
theory in event tourism, and this includes a short note on
the event-tourism discourse that has been dominated by the
tourism and economic perspectives.
entrepreneurs. The reasons are obvious: events are too
important, satisfying numerous strategic goals—and often
too risky—to be left to amateurs. Event management is the
applied field of study and area of professional practice
devoted to the design, production and management of
planned events, encompassing festivals and other celebra-
tions, entertainment, recreation, political and state, scien-
tific, sport and arts events, those in the domain of business
and corporate affairs (including meetings, conventions,
fairs, and exhibitions), and those in the private domain
(including rites of passage such as weddings and parties,
and social events for affinity groups).
Fig. 1 provides a typology of the main categories of
planned events based primarily on their form—that is,
obvious differences in their purpose and program. Some
are for public celebration (this category includes so-called
‘community festivals’ which typically contain a large
variety in their programming and aim to foster civic pride
and cohesion), while others are planned for purposes of
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ND
s
and
s
ets
NA
s
D. Getz / Tourism Management 29 (2008) 403–428404
CULTURAL
CELEBRATIONS
-festivals
-carnivals
-commemorations
-religious events
POLITICAL AND
STATE
-summits
-royal occasions
-political events
-VIP visits
ARTS AND
ENTERTAINMENT
-concerts
-award ceremonies
BUSINES A
TRADE
-meetings,
convention
-consumer
trade show
-fairs, mark
EDUCATIO
AND
SCIENTIFIC
-conference
-seminars
-clinics
2. The event perspective
Planned events are spatial–temporal phenomenon, and
each is unique because of interactions among the setting,
people, and management systems—including design ele-
ments and the program. Much of the appeal of events is
that they are never the same, and you have to ‘be there’ to
enjoy the unique experience fully; if you miss it, it’s a lost
opportunity. In addition, ‘virtual events’, communicated
through various media, also offer something of interest and
value to consumers and the tourism industry; they are
different kinds of event experiences.
Planned events are all created for a purpose, and what
was once the realm of individual and community initiatives
has largely become the realm of professionals and
Fig. 1. Typology of planned ev
competition, fun, entertainment, business or socializing.
Often they require special-purpose facilities, and the
managers of those facilities (like convention centers and
sport arenas) target specific types of events. Professional
associations and career paths have traditionally been
linked to these event types.
2.1. Event management as a profession
A quick look at the main event-related professional
associations reveals them to be very well established,
but also divided on the basis of event form. In 1885,
the International Association of Fairs and Expositions
(IAFE) began with a half dozen fairs, while the Interna-
tional Association for Exhibition Management was
organized in 1928 as the National Association of Exposi-
tion Managers to represent the interests of tradeshow
and exposition managers. The International Festivals and
L
SPORT
COMPETITION
-amateur/professional
-specator/particpant
RECREATIONAL
-sport or games
for fun
PRIVATE
EVENTS
-weddings
-parties
-socials
ents (Source: Getz, 2005).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
gem
Events Association celebrated its 50th year in 2005, and
its orientation appeals to community festivals and other
celebrations.
Established in 1972, Meeting Professionals International
(MPI) is the (self-proclaimed) leading global community
committed to shaping and defining the future of the
meeting and event industry. The International Special
Events Society (ISES) was founded in 1987 and embraces
both event designers/producers and their numerous sup-
pliers. As well, there are associations for carnivals, and
many arts and sports-specific associations that deal with
events, and they organize at local, national and interna-
tional levels.
It will be difficult to change this well-established pattern
of professionalization, that is to evolve from specializations
based on the form of event (such as ‘festival manager’,
‘exhibition designer’, or ‘convention planner’) to a generic
‘event management’ profession. No doubt the professional
associations will continue to compete for members
and prestige, although there are signs that some of the
associations have been broadening their scope and appeal.
The evolution towards generic event management will also
be facilitated by educational institutions offering profes-
sional event management degrees, and by employers who
will increasingly want adaptable professionals.
Historically, there were few if any academic programs in
event management prior to the 1990s. Since then the
literature on events has exploded, accompanying a global
move to establish diploma and degree programs. There are
a growing number of Masters programs in event manage-
ment, and numerous individual courses offered in tourism,
leisure, sport and hospitality programs. In the United
Kingdom, the Association for Events Management Educa-
tion (AEME) was established in 2004 ‘‘yin order to
support and raise the profile of the events discipline
through the sharing of education and best practice’’
(www.aeme.co.uk).
Several research journals are devoted to this field,
starting with Festival Management and Event Tourism in
1993, later renamed Event Management. Convention and
Exhibition Management was recently renamed Convention
and Event Tourism, and an online journal of Event
Management research has been established. The World
Journal of Managing Events is the latest addition.
2.2. Event studies
New academic fields such as tourism, leisure or
hospitality studies generally arise from professional prac-
tice that justifies courses or degree programs at universities
and colleges. When a critical mass of students, programs,
and teachers is reached, research and publications in
research journals follow. The academics who teach, do
research and publish within the emerging field typically
need to elevate the status of their work from that of purely
D. Getz / Tourism Mana
applied to something more theoretical and at the same time
academically credible. This describes the evolution of
tourism management with tourism studies, and recreation
management with leisure studies, so we can similarly justify
the relationships between ‘event management’ and ‘event
studies’.
The study of events has long existed within several
disciplines, manifested in research and theory development
on (for example) the anthropology, geography or econom-
ics of events, but the term ‘event studies’ appears to have
been coined in 2000, and then only in passing in Getz’s
speech in the Events Beyond 2000 (Sydney) conference. In
a 2002 article in Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Management Getz explicitly discussed event studies and
event management, questioning their possible status as
disciplines or fields (Getz, 1998, 1999, 2002).
Event studies was an unnecessary and perhaps irrelevant
idea until academics doing event-related teaching and
research had published a critical mass of papers and books,
met at event-specific research conferences, established
event-specific journals, and generated sufficient interest in
theory. In terms of events-related education the majority of
programs appear to be at either the practical, hands-on
level (encompassing ‘event design’) or those with emphasis
on applying management theory and methods to events
and event-producing organizations. Event tourism is
generally covered within tourism degree programs as a
topic or a single course.
3. The tourism perspective
The term ‘event(s) tourism’ was not widely used, if at all,
prior to 1987 when The New Zealand Tourist and Publicity
Department (1987) reported: ‘‘Event tourism is an
important and rapidly growing segment of international
tourismy’’. An article by Getz in 1989 in Tourism
Management (‘Special Events: Defining the Product’)
developed a framework for planning ‘events tourism’.
Prior to this it was normal to speak of special events,
hallmark events, mega events and specific types of events.
Now ‘event tourism’ is generally recognized as being
inclusive of all planned events in an integrated approach
to development and marketing.
As with all forms of special-interest travel, event tourism
must be viewed from both demand and supply sides.
A consumer perspective requires determining who travels
for events and why, and also who attends events while
traveling. We also want to know what ‘event tourists’ do
and spend. Included in this demand-side approach is
assessment of the value of events in promoting a positive
destination image, place marketing in general, and co-
branding with destinations.
On the supply side, destinations develop, facilitate and
promote events of all kinds to meet multiple goals: to
attract tourists (especially in the off-peak seasons), serve as
a catalyst (for urban renewal, and for increasing the
infrastructure and tourism capacity of the destination),
ent 29 (2008) 403–428 405
to foster a positive destination image and contribute
to general place marketing (including contributions to
fostering a better place in which to live, work and invest),
and to animate specific attractions or areas.
There is no real justification for considering event
tourism as a separate field of studies. The constraint is
that both tourism and event studies are necessary to
understand this kind of experience. As well, there are sub-
areas like sport and cultural tourism (in which intrinsic
motivations prevail) and business travel (mostly extrinsi-
cally motivated) that also focus on the event tourism
experience. In a similar vein, Deery, Jago, and Fredline
(2004) asked if sport tourism and event tourism are the
same thing. Their conceptualization showed sport tourism
as being at the nexus of event tourism and sport, with both
sport tourism and event tourism being sub-sets of tourism
in general. Indeed, there is almost limitless potential for
sub-dividing tourism studies and management in this
manner.
Fig. 2 depicts the set of interrelationships occurring at
the nexus of tourism and event studies, consisting of both
the marketing of events to tourists and the development
and marketing of events for tourism and economic
development purposes.
Event tourism is not usually recognized as a separate
professional field. Mostly it is seen as an application
of, or specialty within national tourism offices (NTOs)
and destination marketing/management organizations
(DMOs). Event development agencies (as opposed to
agencies focused on protocol, arts and culture which also
deal with planned events) embody event tourism comple-
tely, and there are a growing number of associated career
paths or technical jobs, as illustrated in Fig. 3. And there is
a growing body of research and practical literature devoted
to most of these functions—as revealed in the ensuing
literature review.
3.1. The destination perspective on event tourism
From the tourism industry’s perspective, typically
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Event
Tourism
-a market for
event managers
-destination
development
through events
TOURISM
MANAGEMENT
AND TOURISM
STUDIES
-Developing and
promoting
tourism
-Understanding
travel and tourists,
including
event tourists
EVENT
MANAGEMENT
AND EVENT
STUDIES
-Design, production,
and management of
events
-Understanding planned
event experiences and
the meanings attached
Fig. 2. Event tourism at the nexus of tourism and event studies.
-
t
D. Getz / Tourism Management 29 (2008) 403–428406
EVENT TOURISM CAREER PATHS
Event Facilitator/Coordinator
Tourism Event Producer
Event Tourism Planner
Event Tourism Policy Analyst and Researcher
Event Bidding
Event Services
Fig. 3. Event touris
through the eyes of a DMO or event development agency,
events are highly valued as attractions, catalysts, anima-
tors, place marketers, and image-makers. The specific role
of a DMO is generally to promote tourism to a destination,
both business and leisure travel. Conventions are consid-
ered business travel and participation sport events or
festivals are part of leisure travel. In a study of Canadian
visitor and convention bureaus (Getz, Anderson, &
Sheehan, 1998), events were revealed to be one of the few
areas of product development engaged in by DMOs;
typically their membership (often dominated by commer-
cial accommodation operators and attractions) want
visitor demand all year round.
Existing events might be viewed as resources to exploit,
which can be problematic from a social and cultural
perspective. Taking a comprehensive portfolio approach
TASKS; AREAS OF EXPERTISE
work with events in the destination to help realize
heir tourism potential (funding, advice, marketing)
-liaison with convention/exhibition centres and
other venues
-liaison with sport and other organizations that
produce events
-create and produce events specifically for their
tourism value
-stakeholder management (with numerous event
partners)
-develop a strategy for the destination
-integrate events with product development and
image making/branding
-work with policy makers to facilitate event
tourism
-conduct research (e.g., feasibility studies, demand
forecasting, impact assessments and performance
evaluations)
-bid on events
-develop relationships leading to winning events
for the destination
-provide essential and special services to events
(e.g., travel and logistics; accommodation and
venue bookings; supplier contacts)
m career paths.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
ER
MA
Tou
d H
NA
c a
Tou
AL
c an
trat
gem
leads to greater emphasis on creating new events and
attracting them through competitive bidding. The portfolio
approach (see Fig. 4) is similar to how a company
POSSIBLE MEASURES
OF “VALUE”
• growth potential
• market share
• quality
• image enhancement
• community support
• environmental value
• economic benefits
• sustainability
• appropriateness
P
HALL
High
an
REGIO
(Periodi
Medium
LOC
(Periodi
Low Demand
Fig. 4. The portfolio approach to event tourism s
D. Getz / Tourism Mana
strategically evaluates and develops its line of products
and services. It is goal-driven, and value-based. Destina-
tions must decide what they want from events (the
benefits), and how they will measure their value. In this
destination context economic values have always prevailed,
and this preoccupation might very well constitute a
limitation on the sustainability of events. Stakeholders,
encompassing the organizations that produce events, the
community at large, and the beneficiaries of event tourism
in the service sector, are likely to stress different aims and
concerns.
Within the jargon of event tourism, and figuring
prominently in the illustrated portfolio model, two terms
stand out. ‘Mega events’ have long been defined and
analyzed in terms of their tourist attract
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